According to a literature review by Freedman, Cockburn, and Simcoe in 2015, what is the estimated cost of research failure to replicate in the U.S.?

The correct answer reflects the substantial impact that research findings that fail to replicate can have on the scientific community and the economy as a whole. Freedman, Cockburn, and Simcoe's literature review highlights that when studies cannot be replicated, it leads to wasted resources including time, funding, and personnel, which accumulates to significant financial losses.

Billions of dollars represent the cumulative expenditures on research projects that may have been initiated based on faulty or unverified findings, as well as the potential costs associated with the real-world applications of those findings that may not yield the expected results. This emphasizes the importance of rigor and reproducibility in research, as ensuring the reliability of findings not only advances scientific knowledge but also optimizes the use of limited research funding and resources.